PSI - Issue 83

Samia M. Mohamed et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 83 (2026) 72–78

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strain/fatigue, thermal/moisture cycles, and curing during rapid repairs. Emerging demonstrations link SSCCs to weigh-in-motion and traffic characterization, sometimes coupled with energy harvesting toward self-powered sensing, which supports enforcement and design calibration while reducing installation complexity. These studies underscore both the promise (dense coverage, durability, simpler installation) and the practical hurdles (field-scale dispersion, wiring and electrode durability, environmental drift, and calibration/standardization) (Ding et al., 2022; Gupta et al., 2021). This review aims to focus on current literature on self-sensing concrete by examining biomimetic design principles, structural and sensing characteristics, and methods for measuring and interpreting signals, while comparing key attributes, such as raw materials used, conductive fillers, mechanical strengths, electrical resistivity and conductivity, and sensitivity metrics, for both cementitious and asphalt-based composites. 2. Self-Sensing and Piezoelectric Materials: Mechanisms and Material Development 2.1. Self-sensing cementitious composites Table 1 compiles peer-reviewed studies on self-sensing cementitious and asphalt composites. It summarizes key findings on mechanical properties, electrical resistivity and conductivity, and sensing sensitivity using standard abbreviations throughout. Across studies, mixes differ in precursors, filler type and dosage, loading mode, and environment, which therefore affect the sensitivity of the composites. 2.1. Self-sensing applications in road infrastructure Self-sensing cementitious systems in road infrastructure provide an intrinsic capability to monitor stress, strain, and damage through variations in electrical or electromechanical properties. Recent developments in carbon-based composites enable the integration of sensing capability within pavement layers, eliminating the need for external sensors. Conductive networks formed by carbon fibers, graphene, carbon black, or steel fibers allow electrical resistivity to respond proportionally to mechanical loading, temperature changes, and cracking (Chung, 2023; Z. Wang et al., 2023). These systems transform conventional pavements into intelligent layers, enhancing traffic monitoring, maintenance efficiency, and structural safety (Dong et al., 2022a; Song et al., 2024). Key applications include: • Structural health monitoring (SHM): tracking stress, strain, cracking, and fatigue in concrete pavements and bridge decks using resistivity or impedance changes (Song et al., 2024; S. Yang et al., 2025). • Traffic detection and weigh-in-motion systems: conductive concrete layers detect wheel passage and vehicle load via instantaneous resistivity variation (Deng et al., 2025). • Surface condition sensing: detecting temperature, moisture, or icing through conductivity and dielectric property changes (Adresi and Pakhirehzan, 2023) • Durability and damage evaluation: monitoring microcrack evolution, shrinkage, and freeze–thaw effects in carbon-fiber or graphene-modified pavement composites (Öztürk et al., 2024). • Smart maintenance planning: integrating self-sensing signals with data analytics to predict deterioration and optimize maintenance timing (Dinesh et al., 2024). The challenges facing self-sensing cementitious composites (SSCCs) fall into two broad areas: materials and deployment. On the materials side, achieving uniform dispersion of conductive fillers is difficult because nanomaterials tend to agglomerate; physical (e.g., sonication, ball-milling) and chemical (surfactant- or mineral-admixture-assisted) methods offer partial solutions. Measurement fidelity is another issue: DC readings can drift due to capacitive charging, so AC interrogation and careful electrode design are needed. Environmental conditions (moisture, temperature, loading rate) and the presence of reinforcing steel can distort resistivity signals, complicating calibration(Bekzhanova et al., 2021). Moreover, the long-term durability of these composites, particularly the effects of fillers on corrosion and chloride penetration, remains unclear, prompting calls for additional testing such as water-permeability, carbonation, and shrinkage evaluations. • Challenges, Integration Issues, and Future Directions for Self-Sensing Cementitious Composites