PSI - Issue 80

Yichen Zhang et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 80 (2026) 289–298 Author name / Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2019) 000 – 000

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3.3. 90° cylindrical tube When the fibre winding angle is 90° and only one element layer is used, the 3D and 2D models yield markedly different damage patterns (Figs. 6(a), (b)). The crack propagation captured by 3D model is aligned with the fibre direction and shows element deletion along that direction, while the 2D model fails to exhibit such fibre-aligned cracking. Subsequent increases in the through-thickness mesh to 2 and 5 layers retain the physically realistic fibre aligned crack development in the 3D model (Figs. 6(c), (e)), whereas the 2D model continues to predict unrealistic fracture patterns (Figs. 6(d), (f)). 90° 3D PDM 2D PDM Single element in thickness

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(b)

Two elements in thickness

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(d)