PSI - Issue 72

Anandito Adam Pratama et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 72 (2025) 370–376

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et al., 2023), and poly(lactic acid)/PLA (Bulota and Budtova, 2016). These polymers can also be combined with other materials, such as natural fibers or synthetic substances, to form composites with specific desired properties. Additives are often introduced into polymers to enhance their characteristics, including improving mechanical properties like density, strength, hardness, and ductilityand increasing fire resistance. Fire resistance means that the material can either slow the spread of flames or prevent a material from burning when exposed to fire. The most common method for preventing polymers from burning is using flame retardants (Lv et al., 2020). It is essential to distinguish between flame-retardant and flame-resistant materials, as these terms have different meanings. Flame-retardant materials can still be combustible but are treated to slow down or inhibit the spread of flames. In contrast, flame-resistant materials cannot be ignited by flames or heat sources and do not undergo thermo-oxidative decomposition, meaning they are inherently fire-resistant (Lv et al., 2020). Many flame-retardant materials are commonly used in polymers, from synthetic chemicals to organic materials. The flame-retardant substances used are often combined toprovide fire protection to polymer materials. Table 1 shows the flame-retardant additives commonly added to polymers to increase their flame-retardant properties.

Table 1. The flame-retardant additive material. Flame Retardant Material

Literature Source

Blending Method

(Yildiz et al., 2023; Acquasanta et al., 2011b; Naik et al., 2013; Jimenez et al., 2013)

Aluminum diethyl-phosphinate (AlPi)

Polystyrene brominated (BrPS)

(Acquasanta et al., 2011b)

Zeolite

(Bernardes et al., 2019)

Silicate Mica mineral

Extrusion (twin screw extruder)

(Kahraman et al., 2021) (Ribeiro et al., 2017)

Cloisite

Melamine polyphosphate (MPP) Magnesium dihydroxide (MDH) Piperazine-pyrophosphate (FP) Polyaniline (PANI) Decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE)

(Acquasanta et al., 2011b; Naik et al., 2013)

(Casetta et al., 2018)

(Zirnstein etal., 2019)

Two roll mills (for rubber)

Injection molding and extrusion molding

(Zhang et al., 2015)

Macroalgae

(Bulota and Budtova, 2016)

Injection molding

(Yildiz et al., 2023; Subasinghe et al., 2016; Kahraman et al., 2021; Tang et al., 2023; Ribeiro et al., 2017; Zirnstein etal., 2019)

Ammonium polyphosphate (APP)

Extrusion (twin screw extruder), two roll mill (for rubber), injection molding, pressure molding

Nitrogen/silicon-based macromolecules (MNSi)

(Tang et al., 2023)

Melamine cyanurate (MCA) Pentaerythritol (PER)

(Yildiz et al., 2023; Ribeiro et al., 2017; Zirnstein etal., 2019 (Acquasanta et al., 2011a; Acquasanta et al., 2011b; Hamlaoui at al., 2021; Jimenez et al., 2013; Casetta et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2015)

Extrusion (twin screw extruder), injection molding

Glass-fiber

In practice, fire retardant additives are incorporated into polymer compounds by blending them during the material manufacturing. These compounds are then formed into desired forms using various techniques such as extrusion, injection molding, or roll milling. This integration enhances the fire resistance of the final product while maintaining its structural properties. Acquasanta et al. (2011a, 2011b), in their two studies in 2011, conducted glow-wire and comparative tracking index (CTI) tests to determine the performance of engineering thermoplastics. Several combinations of materials and other additives (as flame-retardant) were used, such as PC with 30% w/w glass fiber, a mixture of two materials, PBT and PA66, with a concentration of 1:1 plus glass fiber, a mixture of PBT plus 14% BrPS and 30% glass fiber. The mixed material was blended with a compounding machine as a twin-screw extruder