PSI - Issue 83

Samia M. Mohamed et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 83 (2026) 63–71

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Table 1. Summary of representative studies on self-sensing cementitious composites and 3D-printed self-sensing cementitious systems

Fresh/printing properties

Mechanical properties

Reference Matrix composition

Conductive filler CF = 0.7 wt% of binder + ACP = 0.25 wt% of binder Graphite (10 wt%) + MCMF (0.25 wt%) + CCMF (0.125 wt% CF (0.7 wt%) + ACP (0.25 wt%) Graphite 3 wt% + MCMF 0.25 wt% + CCMF 0.25 wt% CPC = 150 kg/m³ + PE fiber 1.5 vol% CF (0.7 wt%) + ACP (0.25 wt%) Graphite (10 wt%) + MCMF (0.25 wt%) + CCMF (0.167 wt%)

Sensing results

The best piezoresistive response reported when loading was perpendicular to the print direction. Gauge factor GF = 622, strain resolution 167 µ ε , accuracy 19.2 µ ε  Resistivity 274 Ω ·cm ↓  Sensing degraded after shell cracking

Cement (31.8%), slag (38.1%), SF (3.5%), silica sand (26.6%) Cement (100), w/c ≈ 0.36–0.58 (31.8%), slag (38.1%), SF (3.5%), silica sand (26.6%) cement (28.5), sand (40.8), SF (9.3), quartz (8.4), water (4.4) Cement (48.9), SF (15.0), FA (11.3), FAC (18.0), sand (7.5) (31.8%), slag (38.1%), SF (3.5%), silica sand (26.6%) Cement (100), w/c = 0.583 matrix (cement + calcined clay + limestone) Cement UHPC: Cement LC³-based

Wang et al., 2022

Printable at w/b 0.325; good extrudability

 f`c = 74.9 MPa  ft = 16.4 MPa

Young’s modulus 798 MPa ↑ 42.2% vs plain

Liu et al., 2024 Atkinson and Aslani, 2023 Liu et al., 2024

Extrusion printing

Extrusion

printed

f`c = 56.02 MPa

column shells

 Cast GF 540  printed GF 410 ↓  resolution 99 µ ε

 f`c ↑ 9.8%  Elastic modulus ↑ 19.2%  f`c = 82.6MPa  ensile strain capacity ↓ ~18%

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Nozzle 30 mm, speed 40 mm/s

Hu et al., 2026

GF 1427–1828

Wang and Aslani, 2023 Liu et al., 2025 Nandurkar et al., 2025 Donnini et al., 2018

Printed

sensor

Printed sensor GF 318, bulk GF 527 ↑

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embedded in beam

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GF 669, SNR 10.8 dB ↑

Conductivity ↑ 25–35%, interlayer conductivity ↑ 40–50%, defect detection >95%  Resistivity reduced to <150 Ω ·cm. Optimum compromise reported at ~3 wt.% CF Mortars with 50–100% RM showed reversible sensing.  GF improved by 23% Resistivity dropped from 260.4 × 10³ Ω ·cm (without CNT) to 393 Ω ·cm with 0.5% CNT and to 323 Ω ·cm after sonication. 0.3 wt.% CNT enabled crack related self-sensing Composites with 25% GP showed 43.90% lower resistivity, max stress sensitivity = 1.35  FCR = 22.7% at 0.25% PP + 0.7% CF.  Resistivity at 1.5% PP was 53.2% higher than 0.25% PP when CF = 0.5%.

Hybrid

nano

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carbon fillers

 ft ↑ with CF content. f`c showed no improvement

Cement-based mortar

CF: 2, 3, 4 wt % of cement

Workability ↓

↑ RM ↑ viscosity and yield stress. Consistency index decreased by 60%. caused

Oliveira et al., 2025

Cement + RM

CB

 f`c ↑ 80%

SFs (0.1 vol%) +MWCNT (0.5 vol%)

You et al., 2017

UHPFRC / UHPFRC with CNT

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f`c ↑ with SFs.

Dinesh et al., 2023

Cement-based composite

f`c ↑ with SF by 16.5%  Best f`c at 0.5% PP + 0.9% CF.  f`c at 0.9% CF was 14.4– 17.6%.  ft at 0.5% CF improved by 31.2%.

5% GP

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Ma et al., 2024

ECC with glass sand replacing silica sand

PP fibers + CF

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