PSI - Issue 83

C. Mallor et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 83 (2026) 130–137

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The FEM-based approach used in Abaqus for physics-based models provides a full-field simulation of temporal-spatial distributions for thermo-mechanical variables, including temperature and deformation. For the baseline condition of 120 W, 1000 mm/s, and room-temperature preheating, the full-order model produced the full temperature and deformation fields at the end of printing as presented in Fig. 8. These fields confirm that the model captures both the spatially varying thermal state and the accumulated deformation prior to release.

Fig. 8. Temperature [ºC] and deformation magnitude [mm] field at the end of the printing from the left to the right. Process parameters for hatch region: power equal to 120W, scan speed of 1000 mm/s and room temperature preheating.

Then, to validate the simulations, a comparison of the vertical deflection results is undertaken assessing the differences between the deflection as measured experimentally and simulated. The focus lies on analysing both datasets across the DOE. The simulated deflections, ௜ , vs. the measured deflections from the 3D printed twin-cantilevers, ௜ ா௑௉ , are shown in Fig. 9.

Fig. 9. Deflection tip results simulated ௜ vs. experimental measurements ௜ ா௑௉ for the different DOE tests. The minimum measured tip deflection was approximately 1.12 mm and occurred at high preheating, while the maximum measured value was about 1.59 mm and occurred at room temperature. The simulated values covered the same response range and remained close to the experimental points throughout the DOE. Data cluster by preheating level, which indicates that temperature dominates the response space. The experimental points show more dispersion than the simulations, but the pairwise closeness to the zero-error line remains strong. That closeness justifies using the full-order model simulations as a dataspace for ROM development. The ROM was trained on the DOE points using Twinkle. To check the accuracy of the SM, the deflection results of the twin-cantilever provided by the FEM simulations and by the ROM are compared for all combinations of process