PSI - Issue 79

Naweed Ahmad Rabani et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 79 (2026) 124–137

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with ilmenite, which gauges concrete’s resistance to deformation under bending loads. The findings imply that the amount of ilmenite and the curing conditions can affect flexural strength. As per research, when concrete was exposed to high temperatures after curing for 120 days, its flexural strength decreased similarly to its compressive strength. (Wilson, 1988). According to studies, ilmenite concrete can withstand high temperatures without losing much of its strength. About 80% of the concrete’s initial compressive and flexural strength was retained after it was heated to 450  C and contained 30% ilmenite mud waste (Borucka-Lipska et al., 2020). Likewise, ilmenite concrete samples exposed to temperatures as high as 300  C did not lose their compressive strength, suggesting that it is appropriate for high-temperature uses (Mohamed et al., 2023). Ilmenite-modified concrete is thermally stable because of the mineral’s ability to withstand heat stress without suffering significant chemical or physical deterioration. This property makes ilmenite an excellent addition to concrete used in fire-resistant structures (Borucka Lipska et al., 2020). Over 200 freeze-thaw cycles, the compressive strength of ilmenite concrete decreased by less than 4%, indicating that it can be used in cold climates (Chyli ń ski & Kuczy ń ski, 2020). When the air void distribution of ilmenite concrete was found to meet the requirements for frost-resistant concrete, its durability was further enhanced (Chyli ń ski & Kuczy ń ski, 2020). Ilmenite concrete has also shown superior resistance to scaling, a significant issue in concrete exposed to de-icing agents. During 112 freeze-thaw cycles with de-icing salts, the scaled mass of ilmenite concrete was less than 0.002kg/m2, compared to reference concrete that contained fly ash. (Chyli ń ski & Kuczy ń ski, 2020). Research has shown that ilmenite concrete exhibits significant gamma attenuation (23-73%) and moderate neutron attenuation (9-37%)(Ali et al., 2023). Other aggregates, such as tourmaline, have been compared to ilmenite in terms of their radiation-shielding properties. Despite tourmaline concrete’s superior gamma and neutron attenuation, ilmenite concrete demonstrated significant shielding capabilities, making it a cost-effective alternative (Ali et al., 2023). One byproduct of the production of titanium dioxide, waste ilmenite mud, has been successfully employed as a reactive ingredient in concrete. This method eliminates the need for landfilling and lessens the environmental impact of producing concrete. (Chyli ń ski, Kuczy ń ski, et al., 2020b) (Chyli ń ski, Bobrowicz, et al., 2020). Ilmenite mud waste can be used to replace some of the cement in concrete mixtures due to its similar pozzolanic activity to fly ash and silica fume. This lowers the cement content and increases the sustainability of concrete production. (Chyli ń ski, Kuczy ń ski, et al., 2020b) (Chyli ń ski, Bobrowicz, et al., 2020). (Chyli ń ski, 2024). According to life cycle assessments, concrete that contains supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) like ilmenite has the potential to lower CO2 emissions and increase the sustainability of concrete structures overall (University of Tehran, Iran, et al., 2024) (Duchesne, 2021). Since fly ash and silica fume have comparable pozzolanic activities to ilmenite mud waste, they can partially replace cement in concrete mixtures, lowering the cement content and enhancing the sustainability of concrete production (Chyli ń ski, Kuczy ń ski, et al., 2020b) (Chyli ń ski, Bobrowicz, et al., 2020). (Chyli ń ski, 2024).

Table 5: Ilmenite’s main influence on concrete properties

Property

Effect

Citation

Compressive Strength

Improves with optimal proportions of ilmenite mud waste, but reduces at high ilmenite content When ilmenite is used as an aggregate reduces by up to 27.5% With reductions at higher temperatures, follow the compressive strength trends

(Chyli ń ski et al., 2020) (Chyli ń ski et al., 2020) (Neto et al., 2019)

Tensile Strength

(Ali et al., 2023)

Flexural Strength

(Wilson, 1988)

80% of initial strength at 450°C

(Borucka-Lipska et al., 2020)

High-Temperature Resistance Frost Resistance

With minimal scaling, Excellent resistance to freeze-thaw cycles, (Chyli ń ski & Kuczy ń ski, 2020)

suitable for radiation shielding, 23–73% attenuation coefficient.

(Ali et al., 2023)

Gamma Attenuation Neutron Attenuation

Comparable to other shielding materials, 9–37% attenuation.

(Ali et al., 2023)

Pozzolanic Activity

Allowing cement replacement, Comparable to fly ash and silica fume. Reduces CO ₂ emissions and environmental impact by valorizing waste.

(Chyli ń ski et al., 2020) (Chyli ń ski et al., 2020) (Chyli ń ski, 2024) (Chyli ń ski et al., 2020) (Chyli ń ski et al., 2020) (Mohammadi & Ramezanianpour, 2024)

Sustainability