PSI - Issue 47

Amani J. Majeed / Procedia Structural Integrity 47 (2023) 919–931 Amani J. Majeed / Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2019) 000–000

920

2

Nomenclature d

Solar declination angle [Deg]

Hh Hw Idn

Heat per hour

Total heat required to heat the water Direct normal radiation [W/m 2 ]

Q absorber.abs Q absorber.env

Solar Irradiation Absorption in the Absorber [W/m] Solar Irradiation Absorption in the Glass [W/m]

m l : w

Day of year [-] The latitude angle

Aperture width of collector [m]

Greek Symbols �� �� β

Absorptivity of the absorber [-] Absorptivity of the glass tube [-] Solar altitude angle [Deg] Reflectivity of the reflecting surface [-]

Collector optical factor � - � � Zenith angle [Deg] Angle of incidence [Deg] τ Solar time [Hr] Hour angle [Deg] φ

Transmitivity of the glass tube [-]

On the other hand, numerous studies and practical applications have been conducted on renewable energy (Al Husseini et al., 2015; Al-Hussieni, 2014; A. J. Majeed, n.d.; A. J. Majeed et al., 2014; E. J. Majeed & Majeed, 2022). It is likely that oil and gas will remain a vital part of global sustainable development and growth. Until oil becomes scarce, it will remain a major energy source. Often, it is overlooked that the industry is a major energy consumer as well. In fact, oil and gas production are becoming increasingly energy-intensive. The reason for that is the industry drills deeper and develops fields at farther distances in order to find hydrocarbons. Energy consumption increases as unconventional and heavier oil deposits are developed and enhanced oil and gas recovery techniques are applied (Saadawi, 2019). In terms of conservative thinking, renewable energy has a competitive advantage over fossil fuels. Recent advances in renewable energy have enabled the extraction and production of fossil fuels, which makes them harder to distinguish from one another. Moreover, to power remote mines and cultivate alternative industries on land that was once used for mining, the mining industry uses renewable energy technologies. Coal is one of the fossil fuels extracted by the mining industry. Furthermore, renewable energy technology was used in the gas and oil industry for offshore production and enhanced oil recovery, EOR, (Halabi et al., 2015). In upstream operations, renewable energy can reduce fuel consumption and maintenance costs. Moreover, renewable energy reduces noise, emissions, and safety risks (Halabi et al., 2015). EOR, or tertiary recovery, presents several opportunities for renewable energy integration. In addition to providing energy for EOR processes, renewable technologies can also generate energy from them. Depending on the land and sunlight irradiance, centered sunlight can be an economic way to generate steam for EOR. Latent heat in wells can also be converted into electricity through geothermal cogeneration. Steam is injected into a reservoir to lessen viscosity, enabling oil to flow more freely. In the reservoir, natural gas is used to create steam, which is then injected as an energy source. In solar thermal EOR, concentrated solar power (CSP) replaces natural gas as the energy source for producing steam. A greenhouse or trough-shaped mirror concentrates sunlight to generate steam with temperatures up to 640°F (Zhong & Bazilian, 2018). Thermal EOR is a good application for CSP technology. However, several regions with large petroleum reserves and high solar radiation overlap each other (Wang et al., 2017). It has been found that solar variability has little effect on oil recovery rates because latent heat is stored in reservoir rock. In